University of Massachusetts at Boston
McCormack School of Policy Studies/ College of Nursing/ Graduate College of Education

Special Topics doctoral-level course, Fall 2007:
Pathways of Development and Disease: Epidemiological Thinking For Non-Specialists

Geron/ PPol G/ Nursng/ HighEd 797
Fall 2007 Syllabus

Instructor: Peter Taylor, Critical & Creative Thinking Program
Email: peter.taylor@umb.edu
Phone: 617-287-7636
Office: Wheatley 2nd flr 143-09 (across from Counseling & School Psych office)
Class meetings: Weds 4-6.30pm in W-2-209
Contact hours: Mon 5-6, Weds 2.30-3.30 (in office or by phone, by signup at http://cct.wikispaces.com/PTOfficeHours by email, or by arrangement)
Course Website:http://www.faculty.umb.edu/pjt/797-07.html
Course wiki: http://cct.wikispaces.com/Epi
Discussion Leading SignUp Sheet: http://cct.wikispaces.com/EpiSignUp
Class email list: Emails sent to epicourse@googlegroups.com will go to everyone in the course.

Course description

Introduction to methods and problems in research and applications where quantitative data is analyzed to reconstruct possible pathways of development of behaviors and diseases. Special attention given to social inequalities, changes over the life course, heterogeneous pathways, and controversies with implications for policy and practice. Case studies and course projects are shaped to accommodate students with interests in fields related to health, gerontology, education, psychology, sociology, and public policy. Students are assumed to have a statistical background, but the course emphasizes the ability to frame the questions in order to collaborate well with statistical specialists; the goal is methodological "literacy" not technical expertise.

SECTIONS TO FOLLOW IN SYLLABUS:

TEXTS AND MATERIALS

Readings on a password-protected site.
Gordis, L. (1996, 2000, or 2004). Epidemiology. Philadelphia, Saunders/ Elsevier. (Old editions are OK as a primer for the course.)
On reserve: Kirkwood, B. R. and J. A. C. Sterne (2003). Essential Medical Statistics. Malden, Blackwell.
A guide on technical matters of writing scholarly papers, such as, Turabian, K. L. (1996). A Manual For Writers of Term papers, Theses, and Disertations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (also in library's reference section).
A searchable compilation of syllabi from epidemiology courses bookmarked at http://www.diigo.com/user/epicourse.

OVERVIEW AND MECHANICS OF CLASS SESSIONS

The readings are intended both to illustrate the idea of the class (and pick up on ideas of previous classes) and to identify controversies or problems around that idea. (Central to critical thinking is that we understand ideas better by holding them in tension with alternatives.)
The course as a whole aims to cultivate skills and dispositions of critical thinking and of life-long, cooperative learning facilitated by the resources of the internet. Each class (from week 3 onwards) will be led by one student, who will be assisted by a second student and the instructor. In preparation for the class session, the lead student reads the assigned articles and meets to discuss them with the instructor (by 14 days before the class), then prepares a "substantive statement" and discussion questions to post on the course wiki (by 7 days before the class).
The assistant then prepares a response to the substantive statement and consults with the lead student about ways to initiate and orient discussion. The rest of the class prepares by a) reading the assigned articles and the substantive statement and b) searching for references to add to the case and/or to make connections to their own areas of interest. (For example, for week 6 a student might review Barker's commentary in the same edition as Davies 2006. For weeks 7 &8 topics on heterogeneity within populations and variation in health care, a student might review the July '07 report on cancer rates among Asian-Americans, http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/.) (The compilation of syllabi may serve as a resource here.)
The assistant's response and the class members' references (suitably annotated) are added to the wiki before or immediately after the class. This process is designed to build on the diversity of students' interests in ways that a pre-defined set of readings cannot. It should also serve as a resource for future students and should help the instructor identify alternative readings for future semesters (where "alternative" includes easier to digest and/or a contrary conclusion).
The conventional notion of teaching as transmission of knowledge from instructor to students still has some place in this course. The instructor will provide in advance an introduction to and motivation of each sessions' readings and cases. Discussion leaders may arrange for the instructor to give a mini-lecture, if this seems appropriate, or the instructor may add a response to the substantive statement. The one-on-one interaction around course projects and in preparation for discussion leading provides opportunities for individualized attention. The instructor will provide assistance with technical questions of concern either to the whole class or to the individual student, refer to relevant sections of Gordis and Kirkwood, and/or help students create a network of specialists they can consult with during and the semester and after the course is over. Note: It is expected that students (and the instructor) will have to employ strategies of reading that allow us to extract take-home lessons from readings even as we skip sections that become too technical for us.

ASSESSMENT & REQUIREMENTS

Notes on teaching/learning interactions (incl. rationale for Assessment Requirements).
More detail about the assignments and expectations will be provided in handouts linked to the syllabus and will be supplemented when needed by emails. Key assignments include:
Substantive statements -- these may start as notes on the readings, which only later get revised into well-organized and referenced information on the topic/issues/controversies of the session. If these are shared at an early stage as notes, then more than one participant can contribute to their development into a polished form (following the model of wikipediaentries).
Prospectus for further research, writing, and practice, in which students identify and delve into an area/case/issue and their plans for further research, writing, or changes in practice. (3000 words)

Written assignments (at least 8 of the 10 assignments), 2/3 of course grade Participation and contribution to the class process (at least 18 of the 22 items), 1/3 of course grade Overall course grade. If you complete "at least 8 assignments" and "at least 18 participation items" you get 80 points. (If you do less, you get 6.67 points for each written assignment & 1.5 for each participation item.) The rubric below is used at the end of the course to add further points.
For each quality "fulfilled very well" you get 3 additional points. If you "did an OK job, but there was room for more development/attention," you get 1.5 points.
1. A sequence of assignments paced more or less as in syllabus (and revisions timely),
2. often revised thoroughly and with new thinking in response to comments.
3. Prospectus -- clear, well structured, and feasible proposal,
4. with supporting references and detail, and professionally presented.
5-7. Consistent work outside class connecting topics to your own interests, as evidenced in 8. Active, prepared participation and building class as learning community.

Overall course points are converted to letter grades as follows: A >= 95 points, for A- 87.5-94.5, for B+ is 80-87.4, for B is 72.5-79.5; for B- is 65-72.4; for C+ is 57.5-64.5; and C 50-57.4.


ACCOMMODATIONS: Sections 504 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 offer guidelines for curriculum modifications and adaptations for students with documented disabilities. If applicable, students may obtain adaptation recommendations from the Ross Center (287-7430). The student must present these recommendations to each professor within a reasonable period, preferably by the end of the Drop/Add period.

Students are advised to retain a copy of this syllabus in their personal files.

This syllabus is subject to change, but workload expectations will not be increased after the semester starts.
Version 7 November '07

Acknowledgements: The assistance of Jan Coe, the advice of Yoav Ben-Shlomo, and the hospitality of the Department of Social Medicine, University of Bristol have been helpful in the development of this syllabus.

SCHEDULE of CLASSES and PREPARATION

Recommended reading in advance of the course: see readings for Class 1 (below)
1. (9/5) The course as a learning community
Idea: Developing epidemiological literacy requires collaboration with others (of differing skills and interests) and reflection on personal and professional development.
  • Students identify personal, intellectual, professional interests in relation to central themes about pathways of development (worksheet, followed by spoken introductions).
  • Reading epidemiological papers and popular reports (Case study: Gene-Childhood Maltreatment-Adult anti-social behavior – precirculated) (instructions)
  • Initial identification of questions arising from first reading of the course primer* (continued using wiki or googlegroups between classes -- instructions).
    Reading: Radford (2002), Stokstad (2002), Caspi (2002); Coggon 1999 or a few introductory chapters* of Gordis (any edition) [*skip or skim the sections on infectious diseases]

    2. (9/12) Fundamental ideas and basic vocabulary
    Idea 1: Non-specialists need to become comfortable with the fundamental ideas and basic vocabulary of epidemiology in order to converse intelligently with specialists in epidemiology and biostatistics. One way to move in that direction is to practice making the ideas accessible to the layperson.
    Idea 2: In advising on the most effective measures to be taken to improve the health of a population, epidemiologists may focus on different determinants of the disease than a doctor would when faced with sick or high-risk individuals.
  • Questions on syllabus and course mechanics, including coaching each other on use of wiki.
  • Explain Rose 1985 to each other, identifying key concepts and questions.
  • Review of statistical concepts and basic epidemiological ideas (mini-lecture building on questions arising from first reading of Gordis or Coggon)
    Reading: Rose (1985), Davey-Smith (2001), Gordis chapters 1, 3-6 (+ 7 in 2004 edition), backed up by Kirkwood 2003 (esp. 136-213) and wikipedia entries.
    (Optional homework: Locate a commentary on Rose and add an annotated reference to the wiki for Week 2.)

    3. (9/19) Phenomena: Exploring the "natural history" of disease **NOTE: Class starts at 5.30 and goes to 8 on this date**

    Idea: Detailed observation (like a naturalist) or detective work--albeit informed by theoretical ideas--may be needed before we can characterize what the phenomenon is we are studying, what questions we need to ask, and what categories we need for subsequent data collection and analysis.
    Cases: John Snow on cholera; Barker on buruli disease, fetal origins of later diseases, and the anomalous French cardiovascular disease rate; Origins of 1918 flu pandemic
    Readings: Brody 2000; Barker 1971, Barker 1998,pp1-12, 167-172, Barker 1999; Oxford 2005
    PBS Video on 1918 flu epidemic (excerpt)

    4. (9/26) Categories
    Idea: Collecting and analyzing data requires categories: Have we omitted relevant categories or mixed different phenomena under one label? What basis do we have for subdividing a continuum into categories? How do we ensure correct diagnosis and assignment to categories? What meaning do we intend to give to data collected in our categories?
    Cases: Comparative methods for studying socioeconomic position and health in different ethnic communities; Marriage and divorce by class in the USA; Brown vs. Dohrenwend on Life events and difficulties (surveys vs. intensive interviews)
    Readings: Davey-Smith et al. 2000, Hymowitz 2007; Birley and Goldberg 2000, Dohrenwend 1993.

    5. (10/3) Associations, Predictions, Causes, and Interventions
    Idea: Relationships among associations, predictions, causes, and interventions run through all the cases and controversies in this course. The idea introduced in this session is that epidemiology has two faces: One from which the thinking about associations, predictions, causes, and interventions are allowed to cross-fertilize, and the other from which the distinctions among them are vigorously maintained, as in "Correlation is not causation!" The second face views Randomized Control Trial (RCTs) as the "gold-standard" for testing treatments in medicine. The first face recognizes that many hypotheses about treatment and other interventions emerge from observational studies and often such studies provide the only data we have to work with. What are the shortcomings of observational studies we need to pay attention to (e.g., systematic sampling errors leading to unmeasured confounders-see next class)?
    Cases: Cardiac risk factors, Statins and Alzheimer's disease, Hormone replacement therapy, Vitamins,
    Readings: Ridker 2007, Jicks 2000, Alzheimer Research Forum 2004, Stampfer 1991, 2004, Petitti 2004, Davey-Smith & Ebrahim 2007,pp2-8, Lawlor 2004

    6. (10/10) Confounders & conditioning of analyses
    Idea: Statistical associations between any two variables generally vary depending on the values taken by other "confounding" variables. We need to take this dependency (or conditionality) into account when using our analyses to make predictions or hypothesize about causes, but how do we decide which variables are relevant and real confounders?
    Cases: Immunization levels, Premature mortality in Boston, Hormone replacement therapy (cont.), Birth weight and blood pressure, Control at work and mortality, Mendelian randomization to analyze environmental exposures
    Readings: Egede 2003, Krieger 2005, Prentice 2005, Petitti 2005, Huxley 2002, Davies 2006, Davey-Smith 1997, Davey-Smith & Ebrahim 2007

    7. (10/17) a. Variations in health care (by place, race, class, gender)
    Idea: Inequalities in how people are treated are associated with place, race, class, gender, even after conditioning on other relevant variables.
    Case: Immunization levels (again), Access to cardiac procedures, Evaluation of angina, Variation in mortality of the elderly across communities
    Readings: Egede 2003, Alter 1999, Roger 2000, Davey-Smith 2000, Bassuk 2002
    b. Heterogeneity within populations and subgroups (continued in week 8)
    Idea: How people respond to treatment may vary from one subgroup to another--When is this a matter of chance or of undetected additional variables? How do we delineate the boundaries between subgroups?
    Cases: Forms of breast cancer, Low dose aspirin and prevention of cardiovascular events, Statistical concerns
    Readings: Regan 2005, Eikelboom 2003, Gum 2003, Nelson 2005, Lagakos 2006

    8. (10/24) Continuation of 7b + Placing individuals in a multileveled context
    Idea: Different or even contradictory associations can be detected at different levels of aggregation (e.g., individual, region, nation), but not all influences can be assigned to properties of the individual—Membership in a larger aggregation can influence outcomes even after conditioning on the attributes of the individuals.
    Cases: Ecological and atomistic fallacies, Neighborhood effects, Childhood maltreatment, Effects of inequality, Obesity, Heart disease
    Readings: Freedman 2001, Diez-Roux 2002a, b, Coulton 1999, Korbin 2000, Marcelli 2005, 2006, Balfour 2002, Lawlor 2005

    Mid-semester assessment

    9. (10/31) Life course epidemiology
    Idea: How do we identify and disentangle the biological and social factors that build on each other over the life course from gestation through to old age?
    Cases: Developmental origins of health & disease, Life Events and Difficulties, Other life course approaches
    Readings: Barker 1998,pp43-80, Ben-Shlomo 2002 (replacing Kuh 2004), Lynch 2005, Davey-Smith 2007, Berney 2000, Brown 1978.

    10. (11/7) Multivariable "structural" models of development
    Idea: Just as standard regression models allow prediction of a dependent variable on the basis of independent variables, structural models can allow a sequence of predictive steps from root ("exogeneous") through to highest-level variables. Although this kind of model seems to illuminate issues about factors that build up over the life course, there are strong criticisms of using such models to make claims about causes.
    Cases: Kendler on pathways to depression in women; Ou's synthesis of pathways from pre-school programs to later outcomes; Structural models as causal models?
    Readings: Kendler 2002, Ou 2005, Freedman 2005

    11. (11/14) Work-in-progress presentations
    12. (11/21) Heritability, heterogeneity, and group differences
    Idea: As conventionally interpreted, heritability indicates the fraction of variation in a trait associated with "genetic differences." A high value indicates a strong genetic contribution to the trait and "makes the trait a potentially worthwhile candidate for molecular research" that might identify the specific genetic factors involved. I contest the conventional interpretation and contend that there is nothing reliable that anyone can do on the basis of estimates of heritability for human traits. While some have moved their focus to cases in which measurable genetic and environmental factors are involved, others see the need to bring genetics into the explanation of differences among the averages for groups, especially racial groups.
    Cases: Heritability & critique; Interaction of measured genes and measured environments; Data & models about heritability & change (or lack of it)
    Readings: Turkheimer 2000, Plomin 2006, Taylor 2007, Caspi 2002, Rutter 2002, Moffitt 2005, Dickens 2001, Rushton 2005

    13. (11/28) Genetic diagnosis, treatment, monitoring, and surveillance
    Idea: Genetic analysis has begun to identify genetic risk factors. We need to consider the social infrastructure needed to keep track of the genetic and environmental exposures with a view to useful epidemiological analysis and subsequent healthcare measures. Even in cases where the condition has a clear-cut link to a single changed gene and treatment is possible, there is complexity in sustaining that treatment.
    Case: Genes as risk factors; Collection of genetic vs. environmental data for long-term surveillance; Complexities of social support after PKU diagnosis
    Readings: Bowcock 2007, Khoury 2007, Frank 2005, Paul 1998

    14. (12/5) Popular epidemiology and health-based social movements
    Idea: The traditional subjects of epidemiology become agents when: a. they draw attention of trained epidemiologists to fine scale patterns of disease in that community and otherwise contribute to initiation and completion of studies; b. their resilience and reorganization of their lives and communities in response to social changes displaces or complements researchers' traditional emphasis on exposures impinging on subjects; and c. when their responses to health risks displays rationalities not taken into account by epidemiologists, health educators, and policy makers.
    Cases: Popular epidemiology; AIDS activists influence AIDS science—AZT vs. AIDSVAX; Citizen surveillance of exposures; Lay epidemiology; Evidence-based policy (as a contrast)
    Readings: Brown 1992, Brown 2006, Epstein 1995; Schienke 2001; Davison 1991, Lawlor 2003, Black 2001

    15. (12/12) Taking Stock of Course: Where have we come and what do we need to learn to go further?
    Idea: In order to move ahead and continue developing, it is important to take stock of what went well and what needs further work.
  • Mini-presentations on prospectuses
  • Identification of questions arising from reviewing the course text and comparison with initial questions.
    (12/12/07: Item above replaced with students & instructor week-by-week recap of course.)
  • Comparison of initial plans and current position (for instructor as well a for students). Revision of plans for personal and professional development.
  • Instructor's and formal course evaluations.
    Review: Gordis

    Bibliography

    Readings on e-reserve (path: Electronic reserves and Course Materials, then select TBA, then enter password provided by instructor) or on a password-protected site.
    Alter, D. A., C. D. Naylor, et al. (1999). "Effects of socioeconomic status on access to invasive cardiac procedures and on mortality after acute myocardial infarction." New England Journal of Medicine 341: 1359-1367.
    Alzheimer_Research_Forum (2004). "Philadelphia: All Is Not Well with the Statin Story." http://www.alzforum.org/new/detailprint.asp?id=1046.
    Balfour, J. L. and G. A. Kaplan (2002). "Neighborhood Environment and Loss of Physical Function in Older Adults: Evidence from the Alameda County Study." American Journal of Epidemiology 155: 507-515.
    Barker, D. J. P. (1971). "Buruli disease in a district of Uganda." Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 74: 260-264.
    Barker, D. J. P. (1998). Mothers, Babies, and Health in Later Life. Edinburgh, Churchill Livingstone.
    Barker, D. J. P. (1999). "Commentary: Intrauterine nutrition may be important." British Medical Journal 318: 1471-1480. (http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/318/7196/1471#resp2)
    Bassuk, S. S., L. F. Berkman, et al. (2002). "Socioeconomic Status and Mortality among the Elderly: Findings from Four US Communities." American Journal of Epidemiology 155: 520-533.
    Ben-Shlomo, Y. and D. Kuh (2002). "A life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology: Conceptual models, empirical challenges and interdisciplinary perspectives." International Journal of Epidemiology 31: 285-293.
    Berney, L., D. Blane, et al. (2000). Life course influences on health in old age. Understanding health inequalities. H. Graham. Buckingham [England], Open University Press: 79-95.
    Birley, J. and D. Goldberg (2000). George Brown's contribution to psychiatry: The effort after meaning. Where Inner and Outer Worlds Meet. T. Harris. London, Routledge: 55-60.
    Black, N. (2001). "Evidence based policy: proceed with care," BMJ 323: 275-279.
    Bowcock, A. M. (2007). "Guilt by association." Nature 447: 645-646.
    Brody, H., M. R. Rip, et al. (2000). "Map-making and myth-making in Broad Street: the London cholera epidemic, 1854." The Lancet 356: 64-68.
    Brown, G. W. and T. O. Harris (1978). Sociology and the aetiology of depression; Depression and Loss; A Model of Depression; Summary and conclusions. Social Origins of Depression: a Study of Psychiatric Disorder in Women. New York, Free Press: 3-20; 233-293.
    Brown, P. (1992). "Popular Epidemiology and Toxic Waste Contamination: Lay and Professional Ways of Knowing." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 33: 267-281.
    Brown, P., S. McCormick, et al. (2006). "'A lab of our own': Environmental causation of breast cancer and challenges to the dominant epidemiological paradigm." Science, Technology, & Human Values 31(5): 499-536.
    Caspi, A., J. McClay, et al. (2002). "Role of Genotype in the Cycle of Violence in Maltreated Children." Science 297(5582): 851-854.
    Coggon, D., G. Rose, et al. (1999). Epidemiology for the Unitiated. London, BMJ Books. (Available online at http://www.bmj.com/epidem/epid.html)
    Coulton, C. J., J. E. Korbin, et al. (1999). "Neighborhoods and Child Maltreatment: A Multi-Level Study." Child Abuse & Neglect 23(11): 1019–1040.
    Davey-Smith, G. (2000). "Learning to live with complexity: Ethnicity, socioeconomic position, and health in Britain and the United States." American Journal of Public Health 90: 1694-1698.
    Davey-Smith, G. (2001). "The uses of Uses of Epidemiology." International Journal of Epidemiology 30: 1146-1155.
    Davey-Smith, G. (2007). "Life-course approaches to inequalities in adult chronic disease risk." Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 66: 216-236.
    Davey-Smith, G. et al. (2000). Ethnicity, health and the meaning of socio-economic position Pp. 25-37 In Graham, H., Ed. Understanding health inequalities. Buckingham [England], Open University Press.
    Davey-Smith, G. and S. Harding (1997). "Is control at work the key to socioeconomic gradients in mortality?" Lancet 350: 1369-1370.
    Davey-Smith, G. and S. Ebrahim (2007). "Mendelian randomization: Genetic variants as instruments for strengthening causal influences in observational studies. " Ms.
    Davies, A., G. Davey-Smith, et al. (2006). "Association between birth weight and blood pressure is robust, amplifies with age, and may be underestimated." Hypertension 48: 431-436.
    Davison, C., G. Davey-Smith, et al. (1991). "Lay epidemiology and the prevention paradox: The implications of coronary candidacy for health education." Sociology of Health and Illness 13: 1-19.
    Dickens, W. T. and J. R. Flynn (2001). "Heritability estimates versus large environmental effects: The IQ paradox resolved." Psychological Review 108(2): 346-369.
    Diez Roux, A. V. (2002a). "Invited Commentary: Places, People, and Health." American Journal of Epidemiology 155: 516-519.
    Diez Roux, A. V. (2002b). "A glossary for multilevel analysis." Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 56: 588-594.
    Dohrenwend, B. P., K. G. Raphael, et al. (1993). The structured event probe and narrative rating method for measuring stressful life events. Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Aspects. L. Goldberg and S. Breznitz. New York, Free Press: 174-199.
    Egede, L. E. and D. Zheng (2003). "Racial/Ethnic Differences in Adult Vaccination Among Individuals With Diabetes." American Journal of Public Health 93(2): 324-329.
    Eikelboom, J. W. and G. J. Hankey (2003). "Aspirin resistance: a new independent predictor of vascular events?" Journal of the American College of Cardiology 41: 966-968.
    Epstein, S. (1995). "The construction of lay expertise: AIDS activism and the forging of credibility in the reform of clinical trials." Science, Technology, & Human Values 20(4): 408-437.
    Fortun, K. (2004). "Environmental Information Systems as Appropriate Technology." Design Issues 20(3): 54-65.
    Frank, J. (2005). "A Tale of (More Than ?) Two Cohorts – from Canada." 3rd International Conference on Developmental Origins of Health and Disease.
    Freedman, D. A. (2001). Ecological inference and the ecological fallacy. International Encyclopedia for the Social and Behavioral Sciences. N. J. Smelser and P. B. Baltes. Vol. 6. (http://www.stat.berkeley.edu/~census/549.pdf)
    Freedman, D. A. (2005). Linear statistical models for causation: A critical review. Encyclopedia of Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences. B. Everitt and D. Howell. ??, Wiley.
    Gordis, L. (1996, 2000, 0r 2004). Epidemiology. Philadelphia, Saunders/Elsevier.
    Gum, P. A., K. Kottke-Marchant, et al. (2003). "A prospective, blinded determination of the natural history of aspirin resistance among stable patients with cardiovascular disease." Journal of the American College of Cardiology 41: 961-965.
    Huxley, R., A. Neil, et al. (2002). "Unravelling the fetal origins hypothesis: is there really an inverse association between birthweight and subsequent blood pressure?" Lancet 360(9334): 659-65.
    Hymowitz, K. S. (2007). "Marriage and Caste in America: Separate and Unequal Families in a PostMarital Age." Heritage Lecture #1005.
    Jick, H., G. L. Zomberg, et al. (2000). "Statins and the risk of dementia." Lancet 356: 1627-1631.
    Kendler, K. S., C. O. Gardner, et al. (2002). "Towards a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in women." American Journal of Psychiatry 159: 1133-1145.
    Khoury, M. J., J. Little, M. Gwinn and J. P. Ioannidis (2007). "On the synthesis and interpretation of consistent but weak gene-disease associations in the era of genome-wide association studies." International Journal of Epidemiology 36: 439-445.
    Kirkwood, B. R. and J. A. C. Sterne (2003). Essential Medical Statistics. Malden, Blackwell.
    Korbin, J. E., C. J. Coulton, et al. (2000). "Neighborhood Views On The Definition And Etiology Of Child Maltreatment." Child Abuse & Neglect 24(12): 1509–1527.
    Krieger, N., J. T. Chen, et al. (2005). "Painting a truer picture of US socioeconomic and racial/ethnic health inequalities: The Public Health Disparities Geocoding Projec." American Journal of Public Health 95: 312-323.
    Kuh, D. and Y. Ben-Shlomo (2004). Introduction. A Life Course Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology. Oxford, Oxford University Press: 3-14.
    Lagakos, S. W. (2006). "The challenge of subgroup analysis--Reporting without distorting." New England Journal of Medicine 354: 1667-1669.
    Lawlor, D. A., S. Frankel, et al. (2003). "Smoking and Ill Health: Does Lay Epidemiology Explain the Failure of Smoking Cessation Programs Among Deprived Populations?" American Journal of Public Health 93(2): 266-270.
    Lawlor, D. A., G. Davey-Smith, et al. (2004). "Those confounded vitamins: what can we learn from the differences between observational versus randomised trial evidence?" The Lancet 363: 1724-1726.
    Lawlor, D. A., G. Davey-Smith, et al. (2005). "Life-Course Socioeconomic Position, Area Deprivation, and Coronary Heart Disease: Findings From the British Women's Heart and Health Study." American Journal of Public Health 95: 91-97.
    Lynch, J. and G. Davey-Smith (2005). "A Life Course Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology." Annual Review of Public Health 26: 1-35.
    Marcelli, E., C. Jencks, et al. (2005). "The Impact of Family Socioeconomic Status and Income Inequality on Stature in the United States." Paper for Meeting of the Population Association of America, Philadelphia, PA.
    Marcelli, E., D. M. Cutler, et al. (2006ms). "An Estimate of the Effects of Income Inequality, Racial Segregation, and Food Prices on Adult Obesity in the United States."
    Moffitt, T. E., A. Caspi, et al. (2005). "Strategy for investigating interactions between measured genes and measured environments." Archives of General Psychiatry 62(5): 473-481.
    Nelson, M. R., D. Liew, et al. (2005). "Epidemiological modelling of routine use of low dose aspirin for the primary prevention of coronary heart disease and stroke in those aged >=70." British Medical Journal 330: 1306-1311.
    Ou, S.-R. (2005). "Pathways of long-term effects of an early intervention program on educational attainment: Findings from the Chicago longituidinal study." Applied Developmental Psychology 26: 478-611.
    Oxford, J. S., R. Lambkin, et al. (2005). " A hypothesis: the conjunction of soldiers, gas, pigs, ducks, geese and horses in northern France during the Great War provided the conditions for the emergence of the "Spanish" influenza pandemic of 1918-1919." Vaccine 23(7): 940-945.
    Paul, D. (1998). The history of newborn phenylketonuria screening in the U.S. Final Report of the Task on Genetic Testing. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press: 1-13.
    Petitti, D. B. and D. A. Freedman (2005). "Invited Commentary: How Far Can Epidemiologists Get with Statistical Adjustment?" American Journal of Epidemiology 162: 415-418.
    Plomin, R. and K. Asbury (2006). "Nature and Nurture: Genetic and Environmental Influences on Behavior." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 600(1): 86-98.
    Prentice, R. L., R. Langer, et al. (2005). "Combined Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy and Cardiovascular Disease: Toward Resolving the Discrepancy between Observational Studies and the Women's Health Initiative Clinical Trial." American Journal of Epidemiology 162(5): 404-414.
    Radford, T. (2002). "Scientists identify gene link to violence." The Guardian (London).
    Regan, M. M. and R. D. Gelber (2005). "Predicting response to systematic treatments: Learning from the past to plan for the future." The Breast 14: 582-593.
    Ridker, P. M., J. E. Buring, et al. (2007). "Development and Validation of Improved Algorithms for the Assessment of Global Cardiovascular Risk in Women: The Reynolds Risk Score." Journal of the American Medical Association 297: 611-619.
    Roger, V. L., M. E. Farkouh, et al. (2000). "Sex Differences in Evaluation and Outcome of Unstable Angina." Journal of the American Medical Association 283: 646-652.
    Rose, G. (1985). "Sick individuals and sick populations." International Journal of Epidemiology 14: 32-38. Reprinted in IJE 30: 427-432 (2001)
    Rushton, J. P. and A. R. Jensen (2005). "Thirty years of research on race differences in cognitive ability." Psychology, Public Policy, and Law 11: 235-294.
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